Compare and Contrast two poems: Welsh Landscape and East Moors Essay

â€Å"Welsh Landscape† is written by R.S Thomas. He was a Welsh traditionalist born in 1913 and he died in 2000. He has strong views and lives in the past thinking of Wales of having no present or future. The poem consists of just one stanza. The main theme of this poem is war imagery, the words that suggest this are â€Å"ambush†, â€Å"spilled blood†, â€Å"wild†, â€Å"strife†, â€Å"strung†, â€Å"sped arrows†, â€Å"cries†, â€Å"fields†, â€Å"corners† and â€Å"carcass†. He describes Wales to have â€Å"spilled blood† which describes past battles. He goes on to describe how the â€Å"immaculate rivers† are dyed – they can’t be perfect. Even water is effected by past occurrences, blood is becoming part of nature. Nature has been corrupted by battles. There’s no control over the sky, Thomas uses the word â€Å"wild† to describe it. Next he uses alliteration, sibilance â€Å"strife†, â€Å"strung†, â€Å"sped† its related with the past, as its in past tense. â€Å"Strife† describes the struggles they’ve had, â€Å"strung† indicates there was trouble. â€Å"Vibrant† makes you think of a bright, alive and almost artistic place, but then he brings in the strong opinion of â€Å"you cannot live in the present†. Gillian Clarke, a feminist born in Cardiff in 1937, writes â€Å"East Moors†. She believes boredom is a major problem in Wales once the community’s biggest employer closes down. It consists of 6 stanzas. Demolition is the main theme. This poem looks at change in the community, the sort of change some might regard as a progress, but which the poem suggests can undermine communities, individual identity and purpose. Steelworks meant more to men than anything in their life as it was their life, they were there all the time, it was the main topic of conversation and it was the income to support their families, without it they had nothing. The first line in this poem make you think a seasonal change will follow these events, the arrival of spring is to come with the arrival of May. It’s a device used to suggest a possible end to bitter times but this is undermined in the final stanza when the phrases â€Å"icy† and â€Å"rain is blowing† is used to describe the first day in May. The â€Å"flash of sea† is a metaphor, to tell us there isn’t much sea. There are  some metaphors in â€Å"Welsh Landscape† too: â€Å"thick ambush of shadows† is a metaphor for past memories haunting you. The fourth line in â€Å"East Moors† describes â€Å"blue islands† the word â€Å"blue† has a double meaning – the colour and also the emotion of sadness. In both poems there are examples of sibilance, in â€Å"Welsh Landscape† it is â€Å"sped, strung, strife† and in â€Å"East moors† it is â€Å"steelworks used to smoke†. This also tells us that the place used to be filled with industry. The first line of the second stanza shows typical lives of people living in the valleys in the 1930s, people were born in houses instead of hospitals, then they lived in them throughout their lives. The second and third lines describe how the how the steelworks often gave off flashes of light â€Å"sudden glow† in the middle of the night, so the neighbours were â€Å"accustomed† to it. Then it says a â€Å"dark† sound, it’s a contrast to the earlier mention of â€Å"glow†, and it could mean, low or spooky. Throughout the second stanza, there’s a lot of cases of sibilance -â€Å"sudden†, â€Å"sky†, â€Å"sound†, â€Å"smell† and â€Å"sulphur†. There’s also more sibilance in â€Å"Welsh Landscape†, Thomas talks about â€Å"soft† consonants being â€Å"strange† to the ear. â€Å"Soft† is a positive word. The words have a strong connection to the welsh language as he chose to learn it in adulthood – he finds it important to his heritage. In â€Å"East Moors†, the third stanza begins with alliteration â€Å"Roath†, â€Å"Rumney† they are two areas of Cardiff, its showing typical sense of valley life. Now, clothes are hung in yards and there’s no pollution to dirty these garments. Then comes more stereotypical life of men and women – men being â€Å"lethargic† and women lining up jobs for their lazy, redundant husbands. We know they’re jobless, as the steelworks have been closed down, the explanation comes in the last line of the third stanza. The fourth stanza states how bitter these jobless men are, their misery matches the atmosphere as the â€Å"skyline† is being destroyed as the building is torn down. The steelworks made a pattern like â€Å"hieroglyphics†. The day its torn down families gather round like it’s a day out, it reminds  us of tragedies like September 11th. The simile at the end of the fourth stanza shows how important it is to them, like losing someone close to them â€Å"a death†, there will now be an â€Å"appalling void† where the steelworks used to be. These are such negative words it emphasises the meaning of the loss of the steelworks. So in the final stanza, it describes a new beginning, the start of a month, it should be positive as summer is nearing, but as the steelworks are gone, May is a miserable month. There are, however, some positive words â€Å"quieter† â€Å"cleaner† but it goes on to say â€Å"poorer from today† which means the workers have lost their jobs. The fourth line is a repetition from the first stanza. It indicates that although the town might be poor the cherries are still growing. The last line shows it doesn’t take long to forget about the steelworks and life goes on. The sky is blind though and there’s no future for the village. Back to â€Å"Welsh Landscape† the next line in question, â€Å"hushed at the fields corners†, this means, they’re being forced to be quiet, as if by barriers. Then again, Thomas brings up his pessimistic views of Wales, he’s determined to create an atmosphere so people think of past times. He even goes as far as to say things are â€Å"brittle† and would break apart. Its so bad it can’t even have a real ghost, it has pretending â€Å"sham ghosts†. All Wales has are mines so if they are going what else is here? Powerless people unable to perform sexually? Or people â€Å"sick with inbreeding†? That is a harsh opinion, which shows Thomas thinks people never come out of Wales. The last line of the poem is a loose personification, meaning the song can worry and die. The song probably being the Welsh National Anthem. â€Å"Welsh Landscape† has no rhythmic syllable pattern, which implies Wales isn’t structured. There isn’t a rhyme pattern either. In â€Å"East Moors† however, there isn’t a strong syllable pattern, there is however a rhythm and structure to the poem, it relates to the routine of the day. In both poems there are many cases of enjambment, this is mainly caused by the non-structured there’s a lot of punctuation in both poems, I don’t however, believe that it helps with the meaning of the poem. The mood at the start of  Ã¢â‚¬Å"Welsh Landscape† is the same as the end, dull, violent and derogatory towards Wales. In â€Å"East Moors† the mood at the start makes you think there’ll be a seasonal changer, that the bitter times have ended, but in fact the times continue to be just as terrible as before.

Some Aspects of Muslim Educational System in Pre-Colonial India

SOME ASPECTS OF THE MUSLIM EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM IN PRE-COLONIAL INDIA by Aamir Bashir ABSTRACT This paper explores some of the hitherto less known aspects of the Muslim Educational System in pre-colonial India. It examines the broad contours of this system by looking at the public attitude towards knowledge, scholars and students; the various types of institutions, and the evolution of curriculum. It also looks at the depth of Indian scholars’ engagement with IadEth and other sciences. Finally, it also looks at Sufis and their attitude towards the various Islamic sciences.The paper suggests that the educational system of the period under study was organic in structure and was in tune with the needs of the individual and the society. The course of study was a good balance between the temporal and the religious. Indian ‘ulamE were fully engaged with the IadEth sciences; and lastly, the Sufis gave great importance to all Islamic sciences. This paper suggests that the historic al Muslim educational system in pre-colonial India provides valuable resources for the problems faced by modern educational systems.INTRODUCTION The aim of this paper is to bring to light some of the hitherto less known aspects of the Muslim Educational System in pre-colonial India. By pre-colonial India, we refer to the time from the advent of Islam in India in the beginning of the eighth century CE up to the consolidation of colonial rule in the middle of the eighteenth century. 1 This short paper cannot do justice to all the details of the Muslim Educational System during this period. Therefore, we shall confine ourselves to only some aspects of it. These include the evolution of the curriculum over the centuries, and general contours of the educational system.We will also be challenging some conventional theories. These include the notion that before the coming of the press, books were in short supply in India. The other is that IadEth was little known in India until the coming of ShEh WalE AllEh (d. 1762). We will be presenting individual incidents which we feel to be representative of a broader trend and from these we shall draw general conclusions. During the period under study Muslim rule gradually extended from Sindh to include the whole of Northern India until it became one of the three major Muslim powers of that time under 1All the dates mentioned in this paper are CE (common era) dates unless otherwise noted. the Great Mughals,2 Ottoman Turkey and Safavid Iran being the other two. Such a strong and vast empire required a strong administrative structure which in turn required an effective system of education. As we shall see later, education was sufficiently sought after, and provided for during this time, such that India at that time could favourably compare and often compete with the central lands of Islam in the field of scholarship. 3POSITION OF KNOWLEDGE AND EDUCATION IN ISLAM We begin our analysis with looking at the position of knowledge and education in Islam. Numerous Qur’anic verses and Prophetic traditions establish the centrality of knowledge in Islam. The verses include â€Å"Are those who know and those who do not know alike? † (39:9); the first revelation â€Å"Read in the name of your Lord who created† (96:1); and the prayer taught in the Qur’an, â€Å"Say (O MuIammad), My Lord! Increase me in knowledge† (20:114). Similarly, the Prophetic traditions (aIEdEth) exhorting people to seek knowledge are also well known.Examples include the famous tradition in which the Prophet is reported to have said, â€Å"It is obligatory upon every Muslim to seek knowledge. †4 At another time, he said â€Å"Seek knowledge even if you have to go to China. †5 Similarly, al-TirmidhE has reported a IadEth in which the Prophet (Allah bless him and give him peace) said, â€Å"The excellence of a scholar upon the worshipper is like my excellence over the lowest one amongst you. † 6 This emphasis upon knowledge and education has been taken for granted in Muslim societies since the beginning of Islam.The religious basis for the pursuit of knowledge resulted in defining the objective of education as al-fawz bi al-sa‘Edah fi al-dErayn i. e. to succeed through bliss in this world and the hereafter. This in turn implied that education should be acquired 2 â€Å"Great Mughals† is a term used to refer to the first six Mughal Emperors of India. These are, in chronological order, BEbar, HumEyEn, Akbar, JahEngEr, ShEh JahEn and Awrangzeb. These are the first and the greatest of all Mughal Emperors. In all, they reigned from 1526 to 1707 with a fifteen year interregnum from 1539 till 1555.The empire reached its zenith with Awrangzeb (reigned from 1658-1707) and after his death began her decline which ended with the capture of the last Mughal emperor BahEdur ShEh Zafar at the hands of the British in 1857. 3 S. M. Jaffar, Education in Muslim India, (Delhi: Id Era Adabiyyat-e-DillE, 1972), viii. 4 AbE Bakr AImad ibn al-? usayn al-BayhaqE, Shu‘ab al-OmEn, (Beirut: DEr al-Kutub al-‘Ilmiyyah, 1410AH), 2:253. 5 Ibid. 6 MuIammad ‘Abd al-RaImEn ibn ‘Abd al-RaIEm MubErakpurE, TuIfat al-AIwadhE bi SharI JEmi‘ al-TirmidhE, ed. Abd al-RaImEn MuIammad ‘UthmEn, (Beirut: DEr al-Fikr, n. d. ), 7:456. 1. To understand the will of God and to lead one’s life according to it. 2. To inculcate Islamic values in oneself. 3. To cultivate cultured behavior in oneself. 7 As can be seen from these objectives, acquiring knowledge was considered a sacred duty. It was the sole means to success. Knowledge (‘ilm) and practice (‘amal) were inter-linked. Instruction (ta‘lEm) went hand in hand with training (ta’dEb). The traditional Islamic concept of education was, thus, holistic as understood at that time.Muslim scholars had divided knowledge into two parts, the farI ‘ayn (individually obligatory ) and the farI kifEyah (collectively obligatory); but there was no strict separation between the religious and the secular sciences. Both formed part of an integrated whole. THE GENERAL ENVIRONMENT AND PUBLIC ATTITUDE As we have seen above, Islam has placed considerable emphasis upon knowledge. Because of this we find that, historically, the general attitude of Muslims, throughout the world, towards knowledge, scholars and students had been that of reverence.In every land, there were to be found a significant number of people who had dedicated themselves to learning and/or teaching. At the same time, the general public considered it an act of worship to help the scholars and the students. This public attitude coupled with safety of the roads maintained by stable and strong Muslim governments, enabled people to move across great distances in search of knowledge. In spite of the crude means of conveyance, people were constantly on the move; students setting out to learn, teachers trav eling to teach. GhulEm ‘AlE OzEd BilgirEmE (d. 785) writes in his book Ma’Ethir al-KirEm, which is a historical account of sixteenth/seventeenth century Mughal India, that: Seekers of knowledge travel in multitudes from one place to another. Wherever, the situation is agreeable, they get busy in learning†¦. The well-to-do people of each town take care of these seekers of knowledge and consider it a great honour to serve them. 8 7 8 Al-Nadvi & Moinuddin, Survey of Muslim Education: India, (Cambridge: The Islamic Academy, 1985), 5. Sayyid ManE? ir AIsan GElEnE, PEk-o-Hind main MusalmEnon kE Ni? Em-e-Ta‘lEm-o-Tarbiyyat. Lahore: Maktaba RaImEniyya, n. d. ) 19. The teachers occupied a high position in society. Though their emoluments were not always great, they commanded universal respect and confidence. GilEnE mentions a number of incidents when the teachers, in spite of their poverty, refused to accept any monetary help from others; and whatever help or gift was accepted, the giver always considered it to be an honor for his gift to have been accepted. 9 This attitude was widespread throughout the period under review. Even absolutist monarchs showed deference to the ‘ulamE and the Sufis. Ni?EmE has also mentioned several incidents of ‘ulamE and Sufis refusing royal gifts even while suffering from abject poverty. 10 For many, poverty was a chosen path and the royal gifts were seen as undoing years of patient hard work. INSTITUTIONS The main institutions for teaching and learning during the period of Muslim rule in India were maktabs and madrasahs,11 mosques and khEnqEhs (Sufi centers), and private houses. Almost every mosque served as an elementary school. However, a large number of eminent scholars and men of letter taught independently and even supported the students who came to them to study.This then was the foundation upon which the whole system was built; the teacher and the student. The issue of budgetary allocations for school buildings and provision of other services was not the top most priority for these people. What was most important was the existence of a sincere teacher and a sincere student. If these two were obtaining, other things could be improvised. OzEd has mentioned a famous teacher of his hometown Bilgiram, MEr MubErak. He taught there for years but throughout this time, he was based in the verandah of a certain noble of the town. verandah. 2 At the same time, the state was not negligent to matters of education. Kings as well as local Nawabs and other well-to-do people considered it an act of virtue to build maktabs, madrasahs and to support teachers and students. We find a network of such institutions; oneman schools as well as larger more organized affairs; scattered throughout the length and breadth 9 Hundreds came and studied from him but he continued to operate from that Ibid. , 24. Khaliq Ahmad Nizami, Some Aspects of Religion & Politics in India during the 13th century, (Bomba y: Asia Publishing, 1961), 152-156. 1 It should be noted that madrasah refers to an institute which offers a comprehensive multi-year course in Islamic studies. It is different from a maktab which refers to part-time schools that offer basic instruction in reading the Qur’an and basics of Islam. 12 GElEnE, 21. 10 of India. All three levels viz. elementary, secondary, higher, were catered for. However, no one level dominated in any one institution. Private houses were being used to provide basic elementary education but at the same time could be seen to provide advanced studies to those interested.In fact, this lack of bureaucratic uniformity was this system’s greatest strength. The system reflected the needs of the people. It accommodated the grassroots desires and ambitions of people regarding education. Thus, we find huge well-funded, well-organized madrasahs existing side by side with one man schools operating out of private houses. 13 The student had the liberty of choosing which teacher to study from. Problems of admissions and school discipline were rare. The focus was on the real thing: education; with very little squabbling over the means to acquire it.Muslim rulers also patronized scholars. Amongst the earliest examples is that of the famous theologian Fakhr al-DEn al-REzE (d. 1209). He was also a great philosopher and expert in many Islamic sciences. He was patronized by many rulers. Among these was ShihEb al-DEn GhaurE (1206), the founder of Muslim rule in India proper. It is reported about him that he had al-REzE stay in his camp wherever he went. Al- REzE was the official prayer leader and delivered sermons and lectures in the camp. 14 COURSE OF STUDY Muslims first reached India as conquerors in the beginning of the eighth century.The intellectual climate of their Arab homeland was extended to Sindh, the portion of India that had been conquered. At this stage we find an active participation of Sindh based scholars in the field of Iad Eth. Their names appear in the chains of transmission of aIEdEth that were later on recorded by other IadEth masters. Some of their names and works have also been mentioned by ‘Abd al-? ayy al-? asanE in his al-ThaqEfah al-IslEmiyyah fi al-Hind. 15 However, this period lasted for only four centuries and Muslim rule was confined to Sindh and Multan (southern Punjab).Beginning towards the end of the tenth century, Muslims began to enter India from the North-West in successive waves, each time extending their territories even further towards North and Central India. Along with each invading army, and on 13 14 Ibid. MuIammad ShafE‘, FutEI al-Hind, (Karachi: IdErat al-Ma‘Erif, 2002), 60-61. 15 ‘Abd al-? ayy al-? asanE, al-ThaqEfah al-IslEmiyyah fi al-Hind, (Damascus: Mujamma‘ al-Lugha al-‘Arabiyyah bi Dimashq, 1983), 135. their own as well, came ‘ulamE and Sufis. Both had a role to play in the spread of Islamic knowledge in India.Major cities in the newly acquired territories quickly turned into centers of learning. Initially, Multan, then Lahore and finally Delhi became the pre-eminent centre of learning in North India. 16 This second period starting from the end of the tenth century lasted until the last quarter of the fifteenth century. During this time, India benefited enormously from an otherwise unmitigated disaster. The Mongol hordes that ravaged Central Asia, Afghanistan and Khorasan forced many of the scholarly families based there to migrate to other countries. India was the top destination for them.Not a day passed but a noteworthy scholar would arrive in Delhi with camel loads of books. The Indian rulers were fully aware of the worth of the newcomers. They made them feel extremely welcome. Every newcomer was given a post or a stipend or an estate to support himself and his family. Thus, the nascent Muslim community of North India benefitted from a continuous supply of scholars and books. During this period, the education system in North India consisted of three stages: At the first stage, as has been the practice throughout Muslim history in all Islamic lands, a child’s education began with the Qur’an.Each locality had teachers who specialized in tajwEd, the art of recitation of the Qur’an. It is mentioned about Ni? Em al-DEn AwliyE (d. 1325), the great Chishti Sufi saint of Delhi, that he started his education in his hometown, Badaun. This began with learning how to read the Qur’an. His teacher was a freed slave who had converted from Hinduism to Islam and knew the seven major recitations of the Qur’an. 17 After Qur’an, students would normally move on to Persian, the official language of the country. Most of the major works of Persian prose and poetry were studied. These included the works of major writers such as Sa‘dE, ? Efi? SalmEn SaojE, AnwarE, and others. 18 The education of the general population normally stopped at this level. Howeve r, it seems reasonable to assume that some elementary Arabic was also taught at this stage because the students were expected to understand the Arabic phrases that were often used in Persian books and regular conversation. We also find 16 17 Ibid. , 9-10. GElEnE, 139. Also cited by Nizami in KhalEq AImad Ni? EmE, IslEmE TehzEb kE Asar HindustEn par, (Lucknow, Majlis TehqEqEt-o-NashriEt-e-IslEm, 1982), 42. 18 GElEnE, 141. people with only basic education being able to freely quote from the Qur’an and Prophetic traditions. 9 The second stage was dedicated to an intensive study of the Arabic language as well as fiqh. Some of the books taught at this stage included: KEfiyah and MufaIIal for Arabic grammar; and MukhtaIar al-QudErE and Majma‘ al-BaIrayn for HanafE fiqh (Jurisprudence). Later on, MufaIIal gave way to SharI JEmE and SharI WiqEyah replaced Majma‘ al-BaIrayn. 20 Education up to this level was considered sufficient for those wanting to engage in teaching, pr eaching, etc. and entitled one to be called a dEnishmand (wise man) or a mawlawE. Studies at this level would correspond to the fourth year of study in the present-day eight year Dars-eNi?EmE. In the third stage, also called faIElat, advanced books of each science were studied. These included al-KashshEf and MadErik al-TanzEl for tafsEr (Qur’anic Exegesis), MishkEt al-MaIEbEI and MashEriq al-AnwEr for IadEth, al-HidEyah for HanafE fiqh, and UIEl al-BazdawE for uIEl alfiqh (principles of jurisprudence). Along with these, major works in the various branches of balEghah (rhetoric) were also studied. The one who completed this stage was called a fEIil. As can be seen from this brief outline, rational sciences and kalEm (dialectics) were not paid much attention in the regular curriculum.Only a few basic texts of logic and kalEm such as al-QuIbE and SharI al-OaIE’if were studied. 21 In fact, the general attitude amongst the ‘ulamE towards these is best summed up in thi s statement of FatEwE al-TEtErkhEniyah, a fatwE collection compiled during the fourteenth century: The issues of ‘ilm al-kalEm lead to new dissentions (fitnahs) and innovations and cause deterioration of faith; (and) the ones who normally engage in it are either less-intelligent or are seeking to dominate rather than seeking the truth. 2 This all changed towards the end of the fifteenth century and the beginning of the sixteenth century. During this third period which lasted until the beginning of the eighteenth century, logic, philosophy, and kalEm got new impetus. At this time, many students of SharEf JurjEnE and Sa‘d al-DEn TaftEzEnE moved to India and brought with them new books on grammar, 19 20 21 22 Al-Nadvi & Moinuddin, 4. Ibid. , 5. GElEnE, 151. Ibid. , 155. rhetoric, kalEm and fiqh. 23 Later, FatIullEh ShErEzE came to India from Iran and brought with him works of DawwEnE, MullE OadrE and MirzE JEn.These works were readily accepted by Indians and before long the se became part and parcel of the curriculum. 24 Again during this period, purpose built institutions existed side by side with individualized private instruction. The fourth period can be said to have begun from the early part of eighteenth century lasting until the founding of DEr al-‘UlEm at Deoband in 1866. This period is characterized by the presence of two very important personalities. Each of them contributed to education in his own way. One is ShEh WalE AllEh of Delhi and the other is Ni? Em al-DEn SihElvE of Lucknow (d. 1748).WalE AllEh focused on the teaching of IadEth especially the OiIEI Sittah (the six major collections of IadEth viz. OaIEI al-BukhErE, OaIEI Muslim, JEmi‘ al-TirmidhE, Sunan AbE DEwEd, Sunan al-NisE’E and Sunan Ibn MEjah) and al-MuwaIItE of MElik ibn Anas. Later on, WalE AllEh’s son ShEh ‘Abd al-‘AzEz, operating from his base in Delhi, helped to popularize it throughout India. SihElvE, based at FarangE Mahal in Luckno w, focused on developing a comprehensive curriculum which came to be called Dars-e-Ni? EmE, after him. SihElvE focused more on the ma‘qElEt (rational sciences) and fiqh than on the manqElEt (transmitted sciences).In fact, an examination of this curriculum shows that it included ten books on logic, five on dialectics and three on philosophy while only a portion from two works of tafsEr and one book of IadEth were studied. 25 This curriculum proved extremely popular because of its ability to prepare students for independent study. Even the ShE‘ites of Lucknow came to the Sunni school of FarangE Mahal to study because of the reputation of this curriculum at producing well-rounded and rational, educated individuals. Although, our period of research ends here, however, let us state this much.WalE AllEh’s curriculum and SihElvE’s curriculum represented two extremes in their emphasis upon the transmitted and the rational sciences, respectively. Quite a number of p eople took advantage of both the curricula but there was still no single unified curriculum. That came about with the founding of the DEr al-‘UlEm at Deoband in 1866. The curriculum adopted at DEr al-‘UlEm, although still referred to as Dars-e-Ni? EmE, was a combination of the two. On the one hand, rational sciences were studied in almost as much detail as SihElvE had envisaged; and on the 23 24 25Al-Nadvi, 6. Ibid. , 7. Al-Nadvi & Moinuddin, 10. other hand, WalE AllEh’s emphasis on IadEth was also incorporated so that during the last year of study, the OiIEI Sittah, as well as the SharI Ma‘EnE al-OthEr of al-UaIEwE, and the al-MuwaIIEs of MElik and MuIammad al-ShaybEnE were studied in their totality. INDIAN ‘ULAMO AND ? ADOTH The prevalent idea among the vast majority of Indo-Pakistani ‘ulamE is that IadEth was historically a neglected science in India. It was only with the coming of WalE AllEh that this changed.The unique position that WalE All Eh occupies in Indian Muslim intellectual history has meant that his supporters tend to sideline the important contributions made by others before him and during his time. Regarding the contributions of Indian ‘ulamE to IadEth, we have to keep Indian history in perspective. Muslims came to regard India proper (Sindh & Multan being the exception) as their home only after the coming to power of QuIb al-DEn Aybak in 1206. Indian Muslims’ contributions should be examined keeping this in mind. By this time, all the major works of IadEth had already been compiled.It was too late for Indians to form part of al-BukhErE’s chain of transmitters. They could not have taken part in the formative period of the IadEth sciences. Sindh, which was Islamized earlier on, did take part in these activities and was the exception. Later Indians, however, engaged in those pursuits that were still possible. They compiled newer collections based upon the original collections. They learned the IadEth sciences, memorized texts with their chains and taught these to others. In this regard, a prominent example is that of ? asan al-OaghEnE al-HindE (d. 1252).He was the Indian ambassador to the Abbasid court in Baghdad. Upon orders of the then Abbasid caliph al-MustanIir BillEh, he compiled MashEriq al-AnwEr, a collection of 2246 aIEdEth from the two OaIEIs of BukhErE and Muslim. The caliph himself studied this book from him. For many centuries after that, this book was an integral part of the curriculum of Islamic madrasahs. Numerous commentaries were written on it by ‘ulamE in Egypt, Iraq, Syria and Hijaz. It was held in such high esteem that Sultan MuIammad ibn Tughlaq is reported to have placed it side by side with the Qur’an while taking oath of allegiance from his officers. 6 26 Muhammad Ishaq, India’s Contribution to the Study of Hadith Literature, (Dhaka, University of Dacca, 1976), 218-221. There are many other examples from each of the succeedi ng centuries as well as some from the previous ones which show that learning IadEth and teaching it to others was very much a part of the educational system. There was IsmE‘El MuIaddith (d. 1056) who was based in Lahore and had dedicated himself to teaching the various Islamic sciences including IadEth. 27 Then there were Shaykh BahlEl of Delhi and MuftE MuIammad of Lahore, both from the time of Akbar (c. ixteenth century). Both were well-known for their expertise in IadEth. 28 MuftE MuIammad used to teach OaIEI BukhErE and MishkEt al-MaIEbEI. Also from the sixteenth century is MEr MurtazE SharEfE, the grandson of SharEf JurjEnE. He left Shiraz to go to Makkah and learned IadEth from ibn ? ajar al-MakkE and got ijEzah (permission/license) from him to teach it to others. He came to settle down in Agra and passed away during the reign of Akbar. 29 Then there was ? Efi? DarEz PeshEwarE who had learned IadEth from his mother. This lady had written a commentary on OaIEI BukhErE in Persian. 0 Moreover, it is mentioned about MuIammad Farrukh, the grandson of AImad Sirhindi, that he had memorized 70,000 aIEadEth along with their chains and texts and their strengths and weaknesses. 31 This devotion to IadEth was not confined to North India alone. Gujarat in western India is situated opposite the Arabian Peninsula and therefore, has enjoyed a closer relationship with the Arab peninsula from the beginning. Prominent ‘ulamE such as ‘AlE MuttaqE (d. c. 1568) and his students MuIammad ibn UEhir PatnE (d. 1578) and ‘Abd al-WahhEb al-MuttaqE (d. 1592) were in the forefront in the science of IadEth.They flourished in Gujarat and Makkah and from there, their influence extended to various parts of the world. In Delhi, ’Abd al-WahhEb’s student ‘Abd al-? aqq (d. 1642) was active in disseminating IadEth. He wrote important commentaries on the major works of IadEth. He was followed by his son NEr al-? aqq, who similarly, was quite active i n serving the IadEth sciences. In South India, we find the sixteenth century scholar BhikErE KEkorvE who wrote a book on the principles of IadEth, titled al-MinhEj. 32 In Zaidpur in eastern India, MawlEnE ‘Abd al27 28 Ishaq, 45-46.GElEnE, 129. 29 Ishaq, 99. 30 GElEnE, 130. For more information about women muIaddithEt (traditionists) throughout Muslim history, see Akram Nadvi’s up-coming 40 volume work al-Muhaddithat: Women Scholars in Islam. Its one volume introduction (muqaddimah) has recently been published by Interfaith Publications, UK. 31 GElEnE, 128. 32 Ishaq, 124. Awwal (d. 1560) had written a commentary on OaIEI BukhErE, titled FayI al-BErE. 33 Even OzEd, more famous for the historical works that he wrote, had written a commentary on OaIEI BukhErE, titled Oaw’ al-OarErE. 4 In Kashmir, there was MullE InEyat AllEh KashmErE (d. 1713). He had taught OaIEI BukhErE thirty six times. 35 And then in the nineteenth century, we find RaImat AllEh IlEhabEdE who had memorized the six books of IadEth (OiIEI Sittah). 36 The rulers also took active part in patronizing IadEth sciences. It is mentioned about Sultan MaImEd ShEh (d. 1397) of the South Indian Bahmani kingdom that he had set aside special stipends for the scholars of IadEth so that they could stay engaged in their scholarly pursuits without having to worry about earning their living. 37Sufis and Knowledge Sufis enjoy perhaps the worst reputation in Islamic scholarly circles. Much of this stems from the behavior and statements of ignorant Sufis. This then leads to a blanket condemnation of all Sufis including the classical giants of taIawwuf. Historical evidence points in a different direction. It would be helpful to consider here the case of some Sufis and their attitudes towards education. In fact, in the second half of the thirteenth century, Delhi saw the founding of the khEnqEh of the famous Chishti saint, Ni? Em al-DEn AwliyE. Not only had Ni?Em al-DEn studied the above-mentioned M ashEriq al-AnwEr from cover to cover but also knew the entire collection by heart. 38 The best source of information about him is his utterances (malfE? Et) that were recorded by his disciple AmEr ? asan SijzE (d. 1336) in his famous work FawE’id al-Fu’Ed. 39 Even a cursory glance at this collection will show that Ni? Em al-DEn had a thorough understanding of IadEth and fiqh. And this in spite of the fact that he was busy training his Sufi disciples and did not have time to be actively involved in the intellectual life of Delhi. Another incident is worth considering.It is mentioned about a certain AkhE SirEj who had moved at a young age from his native Lakhnauti to Delhi to benefit from Ni? Em al-DEn. He lived in Ni? Em al-DEn’s khEnqEh for many years. Once, someone recommended his name to 33 34 Ibid. , 122. Ibid, 163. 35 Ishaq, 160 and GElEnE, 128. 36 GElEnE, 128. 37 Ibid. , 134 and Ishaq, 103. 38 GElEnE, 119. See Nizami, Some Aspects†¦, 347 for the ijEzat nEmah (license to teach) that Ni? Em al-DEn received from his teacher after completing MashEriq al-AnwEr. 39 AmEr ? asan SijzE, FawE’id al-Fu’Ed, translated from Persian into Urdu by ZiyE-ul-? san FErEqE, (New Delhi: DK Printworld, 1996). Ni? Em al-DEn for successorship. Ni? Em al-DEn replied that SirEj was not educated and therefore, not qualified to be a successor. Upon this, one of the scholar disciples of Ni? Em al-DEn, MawlEnE Fakhr al-DEn ZarrEdE volunteered to teach SirEj and fulfill this important condition for him. He accomplished this in six months. 40 This shows the erudition and skill of ZarrEdE as well as the acumen of SirEj to learn. Above all, this incident shows the central importance that Sufis gave to education.One could argue that the sources for all such incidents are hagiographical accounts whose sole purpose is to glorify the personality of the person being written about. Even if we were to accept this charge, although there is enough reason not to, even then, the fact that the biographers considered acquisition of knowledge to be praiseworthy shows the status of knowledge and education in the Muslim society of that time. AVAILABILITY OF BOOKS The scarcity of books in India before the coming of the press has been made quite an issue of.Some historians, as evidence of this claim, have cited an incident involving WalE AllEh’s son, ShEh ‘Abd al-‘AzEz. It is reported that when ‘Abd al-‘AzEz began writing his Persian commentary on the Qur’an (FatI al-‘AzEz), he could not even find al-TafsEr al-KabEr of al-REzE. 41 After a desperate search, he finally found it in the library at the Royal Palace in Delhi. This is hard to believe. All of ‘Abd al-‘AzEz works have come down to us. We find him referring directly to classical works of ShEfi‘E, AbE YEsuf (the main student of AbE ? anEfah), al-GhazzElE, Ibn ? azm, Ibn Taymiyyah, etc.Some of these works were hard to find even a fter coming of the press. It is reasonable to assume that someone who had access to such rare works would also have had access to al-REzE’s work. Even if the incident was to be considered true, it cannot be taken to be representative of a general trend. It appears as an exception rather than the rule. Moreover, GElEnE has cited an incident involving OzEd’s teacher, MEr Tufayl. OzEd writes that once MEr Tufayl went to see the Nawab of Agra. There, a debate ensued about certain linguistic aspects of the Qur’anic verse â€Å"and for those who have the power† (2:184).According to OzEd even for this relatively minor issue, most major works of tafsEr, including al-REzE’s al- 40 41 Ni? EmE, IslEmE TehzEb†¦, 43. GElEnE, 38. TafsEr al-KabEr, al-KashshEf, BayIEwE, and other books of language and rhetoric were consulted. 42 MullE MuIib AllEh BihErE (d. 1707) is a prominent scholar who flourished during Awrangzeb’s (d. 1707) reign. He is the author of Musallam al-ThubEt, a famous work on the principles of jurisprudence (uIEl al-fiqh). A manuscript of the author’s marginalia on this work is available online. 43 In this, he mentions the books that he consulted while writing this book.The list includes all the major works of uIEl of each of the Sunni schools viz. UIEl al-BazdawE, UIEl al-SarkhasE, Kashf al-BazdawE, Kashf al-ManEr, al-BadE‘ along with its commentaries, alTawIEI wa al-TalwEI, al-TaIrEr along with its commentaries al-TaqrEr and al-TaysEr, al-MaIIEl of al-REzE, al-IIkEm of al-OmidE, QaIE’s MukhtaIar along with its various glosses, SharI of alAbharE, SharI of TaftEzEnE, gloss of FEzil MirzE JEn, al-RudEd, al-‘UnqEd, al-MinhEj of alBayIEwE along with its commentary, MukhtaIar of ibn al-? Ejib and Muntaha al-UIEl. This is an exhaustive list.If these books were available to someone working in Bihar, it is quite reasonable to assume that they would have been available in the capital Delhi as wel l. In fact, not only were books easily available during the period under study, rather it was not such a major issue. There are two important reasons for that. Firstly, there was always a professional group of copyists in each locality who were called warrEq (scribe) or nussEkh (copyist). They kept track of all the books available in their area as well as other cities and upon demand they could quickly make copies of the desired book. 4 Secondly, amongst the general educated public most people could write quite fast. About the first contention, the following incident is quite telling. ‘Abd al-QEdir BadEyEnE (d. 1625) was an accomplished scholar and man of letters who was attached to Akbar’s court. Although working under Akbar, he had become thoroughly disgusted with Akbar’s eclecticism. Even though an officially approved history of Akbar’s reign had been written by Abul Fazl titled Akbar NEmah, BadEyEnE felt that the record needed to be set 42 43 Ibid. , 5 7. MuIib AllEh BihErE, ?Eshiyat Musallam al-ThubEt, MS. Or. 350, p. 1, University of Leipzig Library, downloaded from â€Å"UIEl al-Fiqh wa al-QawE‘id al-Fiqhiyyah,† al-MuIIafE min al-MakhIEIEt al-‘Arabiyyah wa alIslEmiyyah, %20 %20 %20 accessed 16 August, 2010). 44 During the period under study, copyrights violation was not an issue. There was no legal hindrance to making copies of other people’s books. Today, the opinion is divided among traditional scholars regarding copyrights. Some insist that they have no basis in Islamic law.Others approve of them. For a sampling, see NEh ? E MEm Keller, â€Å"Copyrights in Islam,† Shadhili Teachings, (accessed 17 August, 2010). right. So, in secret, he wrote his historical work titled Muntakhab at-TawErEkh, in which he showed the darker side of Akbar’s reign. He could not make it public during his own lifetime for fear of severe official reaction. After his death, some copyists got hold of it and befo re long its copies were to be found all over the country. By this time, JahEngEr, the son of Akbar, had ascended the throne.He tried to ban the book. However, in spite of his absolutist powers, JahEngEr could not take this book out of circulation. Every now and then, a report would be received that this book was seen in this town or that city. 45 This can be reasonably attributed to the easy availability of copyists who made sure that they had access to books that people wanted. In fact, this also explains the slow spread of the press in India. The effective system of copyists had relieved people of the need for a printing press. About the second contention, i. e. the writing speed of educated people, let us present some incidents. OzEd has mentioned about a certain scholar Shaykh KamEl: Text books of Iarf (morphology), naIw (syntax), manIiq (logic), Iikmah (philosophy), ma‘EnE, bayEn, fiqh, uIEl, and tafsEr, all of these, he copied with his own hand. And for every book, he wr ote its gloss in such a way that the text did not require the commentary anymore and the commentary did not require the text anymore. 46 Regarding Shaykh NEgaurE, the father of Abul Fazl and FayzE, OzEd writes, â€Å"He wrote 500 volumes with his own hands. 47 Similarly, it is mentioned in the account of a certain Shaykh Junayd ? isErE that he could copy the whole Qur’an in three days and that too with the diacritical marks. 48 To close this topic, let us mention what ‘Abd al-WahhEb MuttaqE has mentioned regarding his teacher ‘AlE MuttaqE. This has been quoted by ‘Abd al-WahhEb’s student ‘Abd al? aq DehlavE in his AkhbEr al-AkhyEr. ‘AlE MuttaqE had moved to Makkah and was the foremost scholar of that city. ‘Abd al-WahhEb mentions about him that he had a habit of copying 45 46 47 48 GElEnE, 59. Ibid. , 62. Ibid. Ibid. , 63. mportant books and sending them out to all those regions where such books were unlikely to be found and people would need them. Writing books was a religious vocation for him. 49 CONCLUSION A systematic study of Islamic intellectual heritage (of India as well as the rest of the Muslim world) is essential for a better understanding of Islamic Civilization. In the preceding account, we have tried to give a glimpse of the educational system of historical Muslim India. This is just a preliminary study. The abundance of historical evidence seems to suggest a very well- organized and organic system of education.Madrasahs, maktabs, mosques, private houses, all kinds of institutions existed in harmony. The options available to any sincere seeker of knowledge were many. Seeking knowledge and imparting it was a sacred exercise and not a commercial enterprise. The general attitude of the public towards knowledge and those who engaged in it was fundamental to the flourishing of this system. General interest in the various Islamic sciences meant that all segments of the population participated in the cul tivation and dissemination of Islamic sciences. Sufis thus placed high value on seeking a proper Islamic education.Similarly, Indian scholars paid close attention to the IadEth sciences. Many of them rose to become pre-eminent IadEth scholars known for their erudition throughout the Muslim world. Moreover, the curriculum that had evolved over the years maintained a healthy balance between the secular and the religious. There were differences in terms of emphasis on the rational vs. the transmitted sciences. However, the overall curriculum was still relatively holistic. In short, Muslim India matched the central lands of Islam in terms of its educational advancement and achievements. 49 See ‘Abd al-? qq DehlavE, AkhbEr al-AkhyEr, translated from Persian into Urdu by SubIEn MaImEd and MuIammad FEzil, (Karachi: MadEnah Publishing Company, n. d. ), 529. BIBLIOGRAPHY Al-BayhaqE, AbE Bakr AImad ibn al-? usayn. (1410 AH). Vol. 2, Shu‘ab al-OmEn [Branches of Faith]. BayrEt: DEr al-Kutub al-‘Ilmiyyah. BihErE, MuIib AllEh. ?Eshiyat Musallam al-ThubEt [Marginalia on the Flawless Evidence]. MS. Or. 350. University of Leipzig Library, downloaded from Usul al-Fiqh wa alQawa’id al-Fiqhiyyah [Principles of Jurisprudence and Legal Maxims], al-MuIIafE min al-MakhIEIEt al-‘Arabiyyah wa al-IslEmiyyah [Chosen Arabic and Islamic Manuscripts].Retrieved August 16, 2010. http://mostafamakhtot. blogspot. com/search/label/16%20 %20 %20 %20 DehlavE, ‘Abd al-? aqq. (n. d. ). AkhbEr al-AkhyEr [Reports of the Select]. (SubIEn MaImEd and MuIammad Fazil, Trans. ). Karachi: MadEnah Publishing Company. GElEnE, Sayyid ManE? ir AIsan. (n. d. ). PEk-o-Hind main MusalmEnon kE Ni? Em e Ta‘lEm-oTarbiyyat [The educational system of Muslims in Pakistan and India]. Lahore: Maktaba RaImEniyya. Al-? asanE, ‘Abd al-? ayy. (1983). Al-ThaqEfah al-IslEmiyyah fi al-Hind [Islamic Civilization in India].Damascus: Mujamma‘ al-Lugha al-‘Arabiyyah bi Dima shq. Jaffar, S. M. (1972). Education in Muslim India. Delhi: IdEra AdabiyyEt-e-DillE. Keller, NEh ? E MEm. (1997). Copyrights in Islam. Retrieved August 17, 2010. http://www. shadhiliteachings. com/tariq/? act=article&id=6. MubErakpErE, MuIammad ‘Abd al-RaImEn ibn ‘Abd al-RaIEm. (n. d. ). Vol. 7, TuIfat alAIwadhE bi SharI JEmi‘ al-TirmidhE [Gift of the Skilful, a commentary on JEmi‘ alTirmidhE]. Ed. ‘Abd al- RaImEn MuIammad ‘UthmEn. BayrEt: DEr al-Fikr. Muhammad Ishaq. (1976). India’s Contribution to the Study of Hadith Literature. Dhaka, University of Dacca.MuIammad ShafE‘. (2002). FutEI al-Hind [Conquests of India]. Karachi: IdErat al-Ma‘Erif. Al-Nadvi & Moinuddin, Survey of Muslim Education: India, (Cambridge: The Islamic Academy, 1985), 5. Nizami, Khaliq Ahmad. (1961). Some Aspects of Religion & Politics in India during the 13th century. Bombay: Asia Publishing. Ni? EmE, KhalEq AImad. (1982). IslEmE TehzEb kE Asar HindustEn par [The effect of Islamic Civilization on India]. Lucknow, Majlis TehqEqEt-o-NashriEt–e-IslEm. SijzE, AmEr ? asan. (1996). FawE’id al-Fu’Ed [Benefits of the Heart]. (ZiyE-ul-? asan FErEqE, Trans. ). New Delhi: DK Printworld.

Foreign Workers in Malaysia

Can’t live with them, can’t live without them. At least that’s what quite a lot of Malaysians I know feel about them. Deputy Human Resources Minister, Senator said that there are 1. 403 million foreigners here holding the Temporary Employment Visit Pass, which accounts for 11. 2% of Malaysia’s total workforce. That’s actually quite a lot of foreigners for a country with a 2. 7% unemployment rate as of last year. But it’s no use denying the fact that we need them. The fact that we still don’t have minimum wage means that there are just too many jobs out there that pay too little (from the perspective of Malaysians) and are considered not worth the trouble by Malaysians. As our cost of living continues to rise against stagnating wages, even fresh graduates earning around RM2,000 will sometimes find it hard to keep things afloat living in Kuala Lumpur, let alone having to survive on a construction worker’s wages. And even now we can see foreign workers in supermarkets and restaurants, jobs that are considered ‘comfortable’ and not ‘heavy’, but more and more locals are turning away from them simply because in the current economic climate the pay is nowhere near good enough. On the one hand it’s a shame that we prefer being unemployed rather than at least earning something, even if it means working a hard job with not very good pay. But on the other hand it’s also understandable why we’d prefer to hold out and keep looking for something better, considering the economic realities that we have to face in our daily lives. The side effect of being dependent on foreign workers is that it puts a strain on a lot of things – public amenities and services especially. They also compete with the poor for low cost accommodation, and the congested living conditions have also contributed to societal and environmental problems. But blaming things on them will not solve anything. The fact of the matter is, these are men and women trying to make an honest living in a foreign country where their presence is not exactly welcomed with open arms. They had to leave their family behind, live in sometimes abominable and unacceptable conditions, and push themselves to the limit to work as many hours as possible in order to send as much money as they can home to their families. Try doing that and see if you won’t find yourself in similar social problems should you be in their exact same shoes. It’s easy to blame the ‘other’ when you’re comfortably on the other side of the fence, but not so easy when you really look and try to empathize with them. Trying to combat these problems will definitely cost money, and if we’re being honest with ourselves, it’s just like dousing a raging fire – it’s unlikely that we can totally put a stop to it. The only way we can avoid these problems is by not having them here or not being too dependent on foreign workforce. Paying the 3D jobs (dirty, dangerous and difficult) better wages to attract locals to do it is a start. A good minimum wage is a start too. Of course companies employing foreign workers will moan that this is not good business, but that is why we vote and have a government – to think about how best to solve this dilemma, because what’s a government here for if not to take care of its people?

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Analysis of Organizational Behaviour - Essay Example These writers stress the importance of both ethical understanding and self-efficacy, stating that in order to ensure good ethical practice it is important that the leader and decision maker has sound knowledge and the necessary experience. However, experience gained in one cultural situation may well be different from those in another culture. The executive in Japan, for instance, will have a very different knowledge set from one who has worked only in Arabia. I can back this up from my personal experience of working in a multi-cultural situation. Kuwait has more or less equal numbers of Kuwaiti nationals and foreigners. The non-nationals come from a variety of countries and this results in a mixture of ideologies, religions and general outlook on life. For example, someone from Lebanon will see his work and go about his tasks is different from an Indian employee. The same is true for many others ex-patriates. There are of course similarities, but always some differences between for example Asians and Arabians. In such a multi-cultural environment the wisdom and efficiency of leaders in building and maintaining good ethical codes and practices are very important. As he uses the knowledge and experience he already has and is gaining over time, a leader gets ever stronger and gains confidence when it comes to making ethical decisions. Confidence in one’s own ability and strengths means a greater ability to be a strong and confident leader when dealing with a variety of situations. In our organization practicing good ethics is not easy. This is not because of leadership deficiencies when it comes to decision, but because of the variations in cultural outlooks of employees despite good communications. The authors cited have talked about the problems of global business with its mix of cultures and ethical ideas.

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Lab report - Essay Example To safeguard our planets future, we need to aim at the orange line level by use of existing technologies. This can also be achieved by coming up with new inventions to meet the world’s energy needs over the next 50 years, and reduce atmospheric carbon dioxide from doubling as projected in the black line. It is for this purpose that we formed a group of three students to come up with an energy wedge that is likely to tackle this problem squarely and at all angles. Our energy stabilization wedge is mainly concerned with efficient utilization of energy, and use of renewable sources as the major active ways of reducing carbon emission by the year 2055. Stabilization at any level demands that net emissions do not remain constant, but in due course drop to zero. Faced with only two solutions of either maintaining the current emission of carbon in the next 50 years or reducing the production of carbon in the atmosphere by the similar amount of time, we opted to build our wedge on the basis practical reduction of carbon in the atmosphere by half for the next 50 years. This option was opted for the various reasons of changing environmental conditions and the sudden changes in technology that demand use of carbon energy (Levy, 2010). The world is required to reduce atmospheric carbon from current 8 billion tons per year by half hence ensuring only 200 billion tons by the year 2055. This is only possible by increasing sufficient use of transport. This is mainly by adopting efficient fuel engines in terms of motor vehicles. Another way is by reducing the distance travelled while at the same time ensuring efficiency in construction and building hence reducing electricity use. This is possible by utilizing solar energy and using materials that conserve energy during winter. Use of renewable sources of energy is our next energy wedge, which aims at using sources in the

Analyze Emmi in Switzerland and predict how they can be more Essay

Analyze Emmi in Switzerland and predict how they can be more sustainable in 2054 - Essay Example This essay will set out to examine the sustainability of Emmi Company, and its sustainability potential in the future, especially in relation to environmental impacts and anticipated changes in the next forty years. Emmi has sought to differentiate its brand by enhancing sustainability in the past through careful and sustainable use of resources, and in its production activities. By doing this, Emmi seeks to satisfy required food standards for its market niche, ensuring that its products are safe and of high quality (Emmi Group: Genuine Swiss Premium Taste, 2014: p1). Basing their activities on economic production, they are also aware of the customers’ anticipation that Emmi pursues a strategy of sustainability that should have continuous price reductions as an attribute. This brings up a crucial aspect of Emmi’s business strategy in attempting to satisfy the customers’ expectations for superior brand quality in relation to maintaining customer friendly prices. This paper discusses the strategy pursued by Emmi in using competent and sound technologies that enable them to carry out energy intensive processes, making the company one of the industry’s leading entity in corporate responsibility. Sustainability is also a critical aspect of Emmi’s mission statement that all its employees are expected to adhere to in sustaining the company’s commitment to corporate management that is environmentally friendly. The sustainability strategy at Emmi is based on three key pillars, which are social commitment, economics, and ecology and finding a balance between these pillars (Three strategic pillars, 2014: p1). These pillars are grounded on corporate values that are aligned with its corporate philosophy, which will bring the pap er to an analysis of Emmi’s environmental impacts and changes anticipated in the next forty years, in relation to their global business’ sustainability potential. Emmi’s environmental policy holds that

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How to teach literacy and Multi-literacy - Essay Example Multi-literacy requires students to integrate technological educational tools. One of the ways teachers can teach literary and multi-literacy is by integrating them teaching. This means that teachers should integrate four essential components of multi-literacy teaching. These are overt instructions, situated practices, transformed action and critical framing (Gambrell, Marrow & Pressley, 2011). Situated practice focuses students to meaningful learning through the integration of primary knowledge. Overt instruction directs students to systematic processes of learning. Critical framing enables students to learn how to approach the diverse environment in order to improve their learning experiences. Teachers can also use transformed action teaching to teach students how to apply lessons to real life experiences. Teaching literacy and multi-literacy can lead to the adoption of new ideas and practices. It can also help in overcoming the limitations experienced in traditional learning approaches. Teaching literacy and multi-literacy introduces teachers to new pedagogical approaches and practices, which creates opportunities for future learning and teaching. The four ways in which teachers can teach literary and multi-literacy are the use of situated practices, critical framing, overt instructions and transformed actions. These methods have the potential to guide teachers to provide equal access to teaching and learning

Critically analyse the territorial and extraterritorial ambit of the Assignment

Critically analyse the territorial and extraterritorial ambit of the offence of murder under English Criminal Law - Assignment Example die of the wound or hurt etc. within a year and a day after the same† (Allen 309). It is imperative to note that under the English criminal system, murder is classified into the category of homicide and manslaughter. Legally, homicide is a more serious offence in comparison to manslaughter. In order for a person to be charged with homicide or manslaughter, the elements of the definition of murder must be proved to be true. Actus Reus Under the English Law, the Actus Reus for murder must be present before one can be convicted for the offence of murder. One aspect of Actus Reus is that act of murder must be unlawful. This implies that act should not have any legal basis to justify its occurrence. Under the English criminal system, the law recognizes some circumstances under which murder can be justified. For instance, killing someone in self defense can be admissible in a court as a legally permissible reason for murder. The justification for killing also depends on the circumsta nces under which the deceased was killed and the role of the accused in the murder (Chalmers & Fiona 219). In essence, killing under English law may include accelerating another person’s death due to an act or an omission. ... This means that any killing that occurs under all circumstances except during war are is classified as an offence of murder. Enemy killing is not justified by law unless it occurs during a war or events thereof (David 453). English Law is precise in regards to the concept of â€Å"Queen’s peace† by expressly stating that all situations except during war are classified as â€Å"Queen’s peace†. Even formally identified foreign enemies cannot be lawfully killed under the pretext that they are outside the scope of the Queen’s peace. It is imperative to that this principle applies both within and outside the territories of the English criminal law. The specific act or omission that results in the murder of a person must have a substantial contribution as cause of death for an accused person to be convicted for the offence of murder. The act or omission and the death must be linked in order for a conviction to be upheld. In essence, the prosecution has th e burden of proving that the accused did more than minimally or negligibly contribute to the death. The contribution of the accused person to the death must be considered substantial in the context of the law (Hirst 229). In this regard, even if the action or omission just accelerated the death, the accused is legally liable for the death. For instance, in R v Dyson (1908), it was held that the defendant was liable for the offence of murder even though the defendant had only hastened death. In order to break the causation chain, it is upon the defendant to prove that the intervening act was the main cause of the death (Cryer 152). This may occur in instances whereby a person’s actions or inactions are part of a chain of actions that can be attributed to the death. It is only an unforeseeable or unexpected action

BHM 443 -Legal Aspects of Health Care (Module 4-CBT) Essay

BHM 443 -Legal Aspects of Health Care (Module 4-CBT) - Essay Example ness and promptly transfers the responsibility for the patients care to another provider who is willing to act in accordance with the agents direction. 2. Failing to consult a disabled or incapacitated patients surrogate if the surrogate cannot be contacted after the health care provider has made a reasonable effort to do so or if an emergency situation does not provide the health care provider with sufficient time to locate and consult with the surrogate. D. This section does not relieve a health care provider from civil or criminal liability or prevent a provider from being subjected to professional disciplinary action for the providers negligent treatment of a patient if the negligence is unrelated to the providers reliance on a health care directive, directions from a surrogate or the recommendations of an institutional ethics committee pursuant to section 36-3231. For example, Michigan laws prohibit healthcare providers to perform duty under the influence of alcohol or a substance ( Public Act 235) since this results to criminal liability ( cited in Miller, Johnson, Snell and Cummiskey, 2007 ) . A doctor who performs an operation under the influence of alcohol and impairs/injure a patient can be considered an act of gross negligence. In this case, the doctor is criminally liable especially if the patient died under his care. In the first place, it is unethical for a doctor to be under the influence of liquor while doing his duty; moreover, he is negligent when performs an operation under the influence of liquor or substance since this impair one’s ability. The law stipulates alcohol content of .05 or more grams which is not visually detected by the healthcare organization. Besides, the healthcare organization has definitely issued policies and directives about this law and has done its obligation to its employees. Therefore, the doctor is responsible for his behavior. On the other hand, Vicarious liability is legally defined as â€Å" a principal’s

Introduction to Linguistics Essay Example for Free

Introduction to Linguistics Essay What is meant by the field of linguistics? This introductory chapter concerns some dimensions of linguistics, which give us a general idea of what linguistics is, including the history of linguistic, grammar, and other disciplines of linguistics study. What does grammar consist of and what are the relationship between one and another? How many languages do human beings have the capacity to acquire? What other studies are made in recent centuries? Each of these aspects are clearly described, and other chapters will go into further details. While in this chapter we will provide some less detailed information on the various aspects of linguistics mentioned so far. 1. 1 Defining Linguistics There is nothing that can be said by mathematical symbols and relations which cannot also be said by words. The converse, however, is false. Much that can be and is said by words cannot successfully be put into equations, because it is nonsense. C. Truesdell Linguistics is a study to describe and explain the human faculty of language. There is no doubt that linguistics has changed through human development. 1. 1. 1 History of linguistics See more: how to write an introduction The history of linguistics can be divided into three periods: antiquity, middle ages and modern linguistics. 1. 1. 1. 1 Antiquity Dating back to earlier period of linguistics, linguistics is often associated with a need to disambiguate discourse, especially for ritual texts or in arguments. Ancient Indians made a big contribution to linguistics development. Similarly, ancient Chinese played a key role in improving linguistics development. Around the same time as the Indian developed, ancient Greek philosophers were also debating the nature and origins of language. During this period, syntax and the use of particles developed fast. In addition, scholars proposed that word meanings are derived from sentential usage. 1. 1. 1. 2 Middle Ages In Middle East, in terms of expanding Islam in 8th century, a large number of people learn Arabic. Because of this, the earliest grammar came to being gradually. At the same time, Sibawayh, a famous scholar, wrote a book to distinguish phonetics from phonology. In the 13th century, Europeans introduced the notion of universal grammar. 1. 1. 1. 3 Modern Linguistics Modern linguistics beginning can date back to the late 18th century. With time passing by, the study of linguistics contains increasing contents. Meanwhile, it is used in other fields, computer, e. g. , has come to be called computational linguistics. The study of applications (as the recovery of speech ability) is generally known as applied linguistics. But in a narrower sense, applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories of language teaching and learning, especially the teaching of foreign and second language. Other related branches include anthropological linguistics, neurological linguistics, mathematical linguistics, and computational linguistics. However, linguistics is only a part of a much larger academic discipline, semiotics. It is the scientific study of language. It studies not just one single language of any one society, just like Chinese or French, but the language of all human beings. A linguist, though, does not have to know and use a large number of languages, but to investigate how each language is constructed. In short, linguistics studies the general principles whereupon all human languages are constructed and operated as systems of communication in their societies or communities. 1. 1. 2 An Interesting Comparison. Linguistics is a broad field to study, therefore, a linguist sometimes is only able to deal with one aspect of language at a time, and thus various branches arise: phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, applied linguistics, pragmatics, psycholinguistics, lexicology, lexicography, etymology and so on. Suppose that the study of linguistics can be considered to be a computer, so linguistics is equal to the CPU, which supports all the other parts. Moreover, sound card would stand for phonetics and phonology, and then morphology and semantics are like the memory of the computer. Whats more, syntax plays as an important role to translate single words to a whole sentence which is full of meaning, just like a graphics card, which uses picture to make sense of the idea of memory stick. Finally, everything is ready, it s time to use computer and the same goes for language acquisition. Very interestingly, the properties of computer are amazingly similar to human language. from www. iflytek. com/english/Research-Introduction%20to%20TTS. htm Above all, linguistics is concerned with the study of verbal language particularly speech and written language. Whats more, language is a system and there is a set of options of which one must be chosen depending on the purpose and context. (Marie E. John P. , 1991, p. 64). 1. 2 The broad study of language Language is a highly complex system of communication, so it sometimes will be called a ‘system of systems’. It is used to construct, exchange, express, and record information and ideas. It performs these functions effectively because it is based upon systems that are understood by those using the language. In this chapter, four topics will be concerned. They are phonology, morphology, syntax, and semantics. In this section, some overall definitions and interactions among the four parts will be talked about. 1. 2. 1 Phonology In order to assist learners at the early stages of literacy, it is very important to understand the relationship between sounds and letters. The sounds of speech are studied in phonetics and phonology. (Marie E. John P, 1991) 1. 2. 1. 1 Definitions of phonology and phonetics Phonology is the study of sound systems- the invention of distinctive speech sounds that occurs in a language and the patterns wherein they fall. In other words, we study the abstract side of the sounds of language, a related but different subject that we call phonology (Peter, 2000). In short, it is about patterns and roots. On the other hand, it is more strict linguistics. Phonetics is the science which studies the characteristics of human sound-making, especially sounds used in speech, and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription. In common, speech sound is used everywhere, and it can be divided into three parts: articulatory phonetics, auditory phonetics, and acoustic phonetics. 1. 2. 1. 2 The difference between phonology and phonetics It seems that phonology and phonetics are similar. That is why both of them make learners confused. In fact, they have great difference. Phonology pays attention to how speech sounds of a language pattern are put together according to regular rules. On the contrary, phonetics focuses mainly on description of how speech sounds are made. For instance, if someone says â€Å"we should get our two lips close together and then push them open with a strong air†, that means he or she is relevant to phonetics field. Another example is â€Å"no words should begin with the ‘ng’/N/ sound, the sound only occurs at the end of words†, and this concerns phonology area. Plenty of terms are used to describe different patterns of letters and sounds. Some of the common used terms are blend, digraph, schwa, syllable and phonics, which are widely and frequently applied. 1. 2. 2 Morphology Morphology has been regarded as a necessarily synchronic discipline. That means the rules focusing on the study of word structure instead of the development of words (Katamba, 1993, p.3). It is the basic element used in a language, and the concept of morphemes is one of the main aspects in the study of morphology (Yule, 2006, p. 66). Basically, it is the branch of linguistics that studies the internal structure of words. In morphology, morphemes are the minimal units that have semantic meaning. It is the linguistic term for the most elemental units of grammatical form (Fromkin, Rodman, Hyams, 2006, p. 77). 1. 2. 2. 1 The classification of morphemes Morphemes are composed of free and bound morphemes. Free morphemes are the morphemes that can stand by themselves as single words, while bound morphemes are those that can not normally stand alone, but that can be attached to affixes (Yule, 2000, p. 75). Free morphemes contain lexical and functional morphemes. The first category, free morphemes, is the set of ordinary nouns, adjectives, adverbs and verbs which carry the content of the conveyed messages (Yule, 2000, p. 76), and most English words refer to this category. The functional morphemes consist largely of the functional words, including conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronouns (Yule, 2000). Bound morphemes can also be divided into two categories. They are derivational and inflectional morphemes. Derivational morphemes are those which make new words in the language and make words of a different grammatical category from the stem (Yule, 2000, p. 76), which means that it can change the meaning or the word class, whereas the inflectional morphemes are used to indicate aspects of the grammatical function of a word (Yule, 2000, p. 77). 1. 2. 2. 2 The interaction with other aspects Morphology has interactions with phonology. The selection of the form that manifests given morpheme may be affected by the sounds that realize neighboring morphemes (Katamba, 1993). For example, prefixes and suffixes will normally affect the stress. Meanwhile, there is interaction between morphology and syntax. The form of words may be influenced by the syntactic construction in which the word is used (Katamba, 1993, p. 13). 1. 2. 3 Syntax So far in our study of language, we have made studies of phonetics, phonology and morphology. We have analyzed the structure of sounds and words. Therefore, we have been concentrated on the level of small units of language. After our analysis of words, we move to the consideration of larger structural units of language: phrases and sentences. If we concentrate on the structure and ordering of components within a sentence, we are studying what is technically known as the syntax of a language (Yule, 2000, p. 100). Syntax can be simply defined as the scientific study of sentence structure. According to Geoffrey (2005), syntax is a term used for the study of the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences. The origin of this word is from Greek and it means a setting out together or arrangement (Yule, 2000). In the sentence The boy hits the door, we can discover that the words are related to each other in this order that it only has one meaning. If we change the order of the words The door hits the boy, the sentences meaning has totally changed and it is nonsense. The reason is that the parts of the sentence are structurally related to each other, and this structure is reflected in the word order. In English, the word order is very necessary and important for the meaning of the sentence according to linguistic rules. In some languages, word order plays a less important role. The meaning of the sentence depends more on the form of the words themselves. In such cases, it is possible for sentences with totally different word order to have the same meaning. English used to be one of these languages. The following examples are taken from Old English: Se cyning metech thone biscop-The king meets the bishop Thone biscop meteth se cyning-The king meets the bishop Although the words are arranged differently, they still mean the same. However, nowadays, the word order is very crucial for meaning. As a consequence, there is a great need for us to explore syntax. Some important concepts are included in the study of syntax. 1. 2. 3. 1Complex and compound sentence Three sentence types are basic in the syntax. There are simple sentence, compound sentence and complex sentence. A simple sentence includes one word. However, in some situation, the simple sentence contains two words. A compound sentence contains at least two simple sentences. The sentences are linked with a conjunction. A Complex sentence composes of at least one main clause and one subordinate clause. 1. 2. 3. 2 Syntax Analysis The following example is provided for syntax analysis. The football team won the match last year. S NP VP NP Det N Vt Det N Adv Ext(time) The football team won the match last year. The chart above is called tree diagram. The letters above each indicate: S = sentence, NP = noun phrase, VP = verb phrase, N = noun, V = verb, and so on. The syntacticians use this method to analyze the sentences. 1. 2. 3. 3 Basic Syntactic Structure In English, the structure of sentence depends heavily on word order. The four basic structures are listed as follows: SNP + Vc + NP ( NPN, NP Det + N) SNP + VP ( NPN, VPVc + Adj) SNP + VP ( NPN, VPV) SNP + VP (NPN, VPVt + NP, NPDet + N) 1. 2. 3. 4 Basic Syntactic Generative Process. There are four basic syntactic generative processes: substitution, expansion, extension, transformation. Take the following sentence as an example to clarify these three concepts. Ken is a policeman. Substitution: Ken is a policeman. Tom is a policeman. Expansion: Ken is a policeman. Ken is a bad policeman. Extension: Ken is a policeman. Ken is a policeman at that time. Transformation: Ken is a policeman. Is Ken a policeman? 1. 2. 4 Semantics Semantics, a subfield of linguistics, is the study of literal meaning. It is the recent addition to the English language. (Palmer, 1976, p. 1). According to Matthews (2007), during the early years the study of meaning focused on the lexicon alone. The scope of the study has expended since 1960s to include both semantics and pragmatics (analyzed in 1. 3), which come to the main fields of the study of linguistic meaning(Katamba, 2000 Matthews, 1997). Semantic meaning is fixed and abstract. It can be understood by surface. However, it is de-contextualized. In another word, it is easily subverted by different gestures or intonations. Semnatics interacts with other aspects of linguistics. For example, when synonyms are used, they can be understood, so it fits the rule of syntax. However, synonyms are used to describe something similar. In a sentence, a synonym can be substituted by another synonym. However, the meaning of synonyms speaker or writer determines or predicates have different degrees, which indicates the meaning is actually different (Alan, 2004). Thus, it is the interaction between syntax and semantics. As for the interaction with phonology, the term tonic syllable in phonology has three kinds of functions. The first one is the accentual function, which is to indicate the focus of the information. The second one is the attitudinal function that is to indicate the speakers attitude. And the last one is grammatical function. If speakers use these functions, the same sentence will turn out to have various meanings. To conclude, in this section, linguistics is analyzed from the aspects of sounds, word structure, grammatical rules and meaning. Each of them is in charge of a certain system. Thus linguistics can help people to communicate, to express, and to be understood. 1. 3 Other disciplines Apart from the core subparts of linguistics, which we have demonstrated before, for further reading, we introduce some other exciting aspects in the field of linguistics. There are a lot more to discover than those areas. 1. 3. 1 Sociolinguistics People may know something about you through the way you speak, for example, where you come from, where you spend most of your life time, your social identity and so on. Two people growing up in the same geographical area, at the same time, may speak differently owing to a number of social factors (Yule, 2000). Consequently, it’s very important to consider the social aspects of language. It’s because speech is a form of social identity and is used, consciously or unconsciously (Yule, 2000). The study of the social aspect of language is known as sociolinguistic. â€Å"Sociolinguistic is concerned with investigation of the relationship between language and society† (Ronald, 2006, p. 13). It consists of cultural norms, expectations, and context on the way language is used. The first linguists who studied the social aspect of language are Indian and Japanese in the 1930s. Another person called Gauchat who came from Switzerland had a analysis of this in 1900s as well. However, these three people didn’t receive much attention in the West. Until the late 19th century, the study of social aspects of language laid its foundation. Sociolinguistics gradually appeared in the 1960s in the West. Linguistics such as William Labov in the US and Basil Bernstein in the UK first brought out this concept and explored it. (Wikipedia, 2007, para. 1) 1. 3. 2 Neurolinguistics Though the neural structures of most animal species are very distant from man, there are still resemblances between human and animal languages (Marler, 1981; Nottebohm, 1970), since neurons work in both. Human brain contains billions of neural cells, and so far, the exact number of those so-called neurons is still to be defined (Fabbro, 1999, p. 21). These teeny tiny neurons have close link with the production of language. There can be innate or learnt vocal utterances. Oral language can be the innate property of the human brain, written language, however, is an invention of humankind. Dogs can bark, cats can miaow, and man can cry even after the removal of the midbrain, whereas parrots cannot imitate human sounds, and we cannot produce human language (Fabbro, 1999, p. 21). Therefore, the neural center of our brain is playing an irreplaceable role in the production of language. How does the main cerebral structure serve the production of human  vocalizations? The study of neurolinguistic rely on the study of neurology and neurophysiology, and in these fields, all parts of the nervous system, each having different functions in generating language, are discovered. Theories are found based on lots of experiments concerning the removals of different sections of the brain. The destruction of different language areas destroys language distinguishingly. 1. 3. 3 Historical linguistics Historical linguistics definitely is not concerned with the history of linguistics, though historical linguistics has played an important role in the development of linguistics. It is the main kind of linguistics practiced in the 19th century (Campbell, 1998, p. 5). Historical linguistics concerns the investigation and description of how languages change or maintain their structure in the course of time. Language change can be easily proved by documents written in the same language but at different periods of history. The differences of wording and structure of sentences can reflect the historical development of language. From series of datable documents, Lord’s Prayer widely recorded the history of mankind, and different versions help us analyze the language of each period (Bynon, 1978, p. 7). Meanwhile we can also discover that certain structure rules are still used in current language. There are some constructs and rule that link the grammars of two different but related languages, which descend from a single original language, sharing a common ancestor. More accurately, historical linguistics deals with the kinds of changes, and the techniques and methods we have use to discover history, rather than the origin of words themselves (Campbell, 1998, p. 5). 1. 3. 4 Anthropological linguistics Anthropological linguistic is the study of relations between language and culture. It is related to human biology, cognition and language. It belongs to the field of linguistic anthropology, which is a branch of anthropology that studies human-beings through the language they use(Wikipedia, 2007, para. 1). Some Linguists who explore theanthropological linguistics consider these topics such as chimpanzee communication, pidgins and creoles, structural linguistics,total languages, whorf hypothesis, etc. 1. 3. 5 Pragmatics According to Kate (2000), pragmatics is one of the two main fields in the study of linguistic meaning. Pragmatics deals with natural language, while language is always used in context for an intended purpose. The listeners must try to grasp the meaning implied, enrich the ideas, and finally make out the opinion that what the speakers meant when talking about a particular expression (Kate, 2000). According to Yule (1996), ‘pragmatics studies the context in which the utterance is produced as well as the intention of language user. ’ That means pragmatic meaning depends on context or situation. Without context, meanings can be vague and may be misunderstood by people. Two of the branches are: speech acts that cover ‘requesting’, ‘commanding’, ‘questioning’ and ‘informing’, and politeness that shows the awareness of another person’s face. In short, sociolinguistics is the analysis of interrelationship of language and society. Neurolinguistics is the study of the brain and how it functions in language. Historical linguistics is the consideration of language change and how different languages are related to each other. Anthropological linguistics is the study of language and culture. There are some other disciplines in linguistics. Pragmatics deals with the speakers meaning. The five mentioned above are some main disciplines in linguistics. Different disciplines of linguistics enrich the content of linguistic. The study of linguistics tends to be more and more detailed and completed. 1. 4 Language Acquisition This chapter began with a general introduction to language study. It ends with a consideration of the acquisition of language, containing first, second and foreign language, which is affected by the relationship between teacher and learner. Some experienced educators advise that it is only through learning to speak a language that you can fully analyze it (Everett 2001). Acquisition is described as occurring in spontaneous language contexts (Krashen, 1982), is subconscious, and leads to conversational fluency. 1. 4. 1 First language acquisition For a child, learning first language is automatic, not after starting school, not in specific circumstance and not by great efforts (Yule, 2006). It requires only basic physical capability of sending and receiving sounds directly or indirectly, and interaction with others using this language. Children are brought up in particular environments, being affected by different surroundings, especially by those people whom they spend most of their time interacting with. Infants start express themselves through some simple utterance, such as some vowel-like sounds. Children gain increasing abilities at different development stages, from producing single-unit utterance to producing speech by communicating through expressions (Yule, 2006), since they are able to understand what others said. This a big step forward, like quitting toddling and being capable of walking steadily, forwards, or backwards. As children are being increasingly exposed to communication and interaction, their language skills are developing rapidly because of the expansion of vocabulary. They are never forced to speak first language and seldom be corrected by others, but they correct themselves through interactions every day. Then children learn to use verbs in different sentences, and how to use different words to form a sentence (Yule, 2006). They gradually learn to ask questions correctly and how to use the word no in their speeches to express negative meanings. The last stage of first language acquisition is the ability of making meaningful sentence (Yule, 2006). There is massive variation in the rate at which features of ones first language are acquired. 1. 4. 2 Second language acquisition  Being able to speak first language is one of the basic skills of second language acquisition. Except for the minority of people who are bilingual speakers, most of the learners have no access to a second language until our late childhood. Actually most of the Chinese learners are now learning English as a foreign language, because it is immediately back to Chinese speaking time out of the classroom. But later on they may have the chance of learning it as a foreign language in a native speaking environment, during immersion semesters, when they will acquire this second language in circumstances similar to those of Chinese acquisition. There are obviously differences in foreign language achievement, sometimes related to differences in aptitude (Carroll, 1982), sometimes to affective factors (Gardner Lambert, 1972), sometimes to learner strategies (Naiman, Frohlicn, Stern Tedesco, 1978), sometimes to environmental factors such as opportunities for language use or instructional conditions (Long, 1982), and sometimes simply to time (Carroll, 1975). Human beings have the ability to learn more than one language all through ones live. Farwell (1963) (cited in Taylor, 1976) reports that a British explorer in the 19th century claimed to have spoken more than 40 languages and dialects. Usually, however, after the age of 10, the acquisition of second language is very different from the way one acquired his first language, which is relatively slower and cannot achieve native-like proficiency. 1. 4. 3 Educational factors Most of us begin learning second language in teenage years, spending only few hours on it every day and for most of the daily activities we use our mother tongue. Accordingly, we will encounter lots of difficulties in learning second language without enough exposure to it. Therefore, the largely distinguished part of acquiring first and second language should be language teachers. In order to learn a second language, we must learn from a teacher, or at least follow their guidance. The classroom is a very powerful instrument of instruction and it can control language learning in a very direct way (Richard, T. Roger,H. ). As language teachers, we should focus on students requirements and follow learner-centered approaches. We should impart knowledge in a more practical way so the students can receive easily. Keep the class disciplined and orderly so that students can learn most effectively from the lessons. There are often the situations that the students seldom volunteer answers, and the teacher sometimes has to call on someone and wait for a long time before a response is forthcoming. Why not try breaking away from typical Hong Kong classroom practices in class? Like, students do not have to stand up to greet teachers, and they do not have to raise their hands or stand up when they answer questions. In a relaxed classroom atmosphere, students will feel free to interact. They will not fall silent when the teacher enters the room, then stand up and chant a choral greeting. If the pupils are put in this position in the classroom, they can be more effectively kept in their place in social life. During the class, we teachers should never say like this: I am your teacher. By the authority vested in me I have the right to ask you to behave in a certain way, whether you like it or not. And you, in your role have the obligation to obey (Widdowson, H. G. ). Whereas, we should say that in another way: Do this because I am the teacher and I know whats best for you, but not Do this because I am telling you and I am the teacher. This difference has the advantage of largely increasing participation in the use and practice of language. 1. 4. 4 Summary Approaches to the acquisition of language account for different backgrounds of learns first language, and different conditions of exposure. In acquiring language, learners often go through transitional stages of development, which is at distinguished rates. References Cruse, A. (2004). Meaning in language : an introduction to semantics and pragmatics. Oxford, New York, Oxford University Press. Bynon, T. (1983). Historical Linguistics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Campbell, L. (1998). Historical Linguistics-An Introduction. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. Dechert, H. W. (1990). Current trends in European second language. Great Britain: WBC Print, Bristol. Fabbro, F. (1999). The Neurolinguistics of Bilingualism. Psychology Press Ltd. Fromkin, V. , Rodman, R. , Hyams, N. (2006). An introduction to language (8th ed. ). Boston, MA: Heinle Heinle. Palmer, F. R. (1976). Semantics: a new outline. Cambridge; New York : Cambridge University Press. Geoffrey, F. (2005). Key Concepts In Language And Linguistics. USA: Palgrave Macmillan. Kate, K. (2000). Semantics. Basingstoke, England, Macmillan. Katamba, F. (2006). Morphology. Basingstoke : Macmillan Press. Marie E. John P. (1991). Language and Learning. Melbourne: Oxford University Press O Mally, J. M. , Chamot, A. U. (1990). Learning strategies in second language acquisition. Cambridge University Press. Matthews, P. H. (1997). Oxford Concise Dictionary of Linguistics. Oxford. University Press, USA. Peter, R. (2000). English Phonetics and Phonology. Cambridge University Press. Ronald, W. (2006). An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. USA: Blackwell Publishing. Widdowson, H. G. (1990). Aspects of Language Teaching. Oxford University Press. Wikepedia: Sociolinguistics (n. d. ). Retrieved 30 October 2007 from http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Sociolinguistics Wikepedia: Anthropological linguistics (n. d. ). Retrieved 30 October 2007 from http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Anthropological_linguistics Yule, G. (2006). The study of language (3rd ed. ). Cambridge, New York: Cambridge University Press.

Immediate Dentin Sealing Of Crown Health And Social Care Essay

Immediate Dentin Sealing Of Crown Health And Social Care Essay Background: Dental crowns are ideal restoration to protect teeth that have been extremely worn down, broken, weakened by caries, and heavily filled or root canal treated. They can be also used for aesthetic purposes. Full crown preparation requires more tooth removal than other restorations and is associated with dentine exposure. When a two-stage crown fabrication is planned, there is a risk of bacterial contamination of the pulpal tissue through dentine and eventually vitality loss. The main objective of this protocol is to assess whether immediate sealing of the exposed dentine surface following crown preparation of back teeth can lead to a decrease in microleakage and bacterial infiltration from the oral environment. Methods: This protocol, immediate dentine sealing of crown preparations, demonstrates a model for a one year, three years and six years follow-up, in-vivo, randomised controlled trial with a balanced treatment allocation of 1:1 (immediate dentine sealing vs. delayed sealing). The treatment will include tooth preparation, impression taking, temporary crown placement and full crown fit on a posterior tooth. Discussion: The results of the study would provide insight into the question of whether immediate sealing of dentine after crown preparation reduces the bacterial ingression and incidence of vitality loss of teeth. The results would also help to provide evidence based suggestions for clinicians and other researchers. Overview This dissertation consists of literature review and a representation of the study design and methodology, followed by data management, statistical analysis and quality assurance of proposed study. Other sections are allocated to ethical consideration and reflection on thesis procedure. DECLARATION No portion of the work referred to in the dissertation has been submitted in support of an application for another degree or qualification of this or any other university or other institute of learning. INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY STATEMENT The author of this dissertation (including any appendices and/or schedules to this dissertation) owns certain copyright or related rights in it (the Copyright) and s/he has given The University of Manchester certain rights to use such Copyright, including for administrative purposes. Copies of this dissertation, either in full or in extracts and whether in hard or electronic copy, may be made only in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 (as amended) and regulations issued under it or, where appropriate, in accordance with licensing agreements which the University has entered into. This page must form part of any such copies made. 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Further information on the conditions under which disclosure, publication and commercialisation of this dissertation, the Copyright and any Intellectual Property and/or Reproductions described in it may take place is available in the University IP Policy (see http://documents.manchester.ac.uk/display.aspx?DocID=487), in any relevant Dissertation restriction declarations deposited in the University Library, The University Librarys regulations (see http://www.manchester.ac.uk/library/aboutus/regulations) and in The Universitys Guidance for the Presentation of Dissertations. Acknowledgements I have great pleasure to express my gratitude to my Tutor (Juliette Kendall). She has been most helpful and supportive throughout. Introduction, Research question and PICO 1.1 Introduction Restoring teeth with full-coverage crowns is a routine treatment in general dental practice. This normally requires two visits, one for crown preparation and impression taking and one for final cementation of the crown once the restoration has been produced in the dental laboratory. Provisional crowns which will be provided to protect the tooth between two visits could cause problems since they are not bonded to the prepared tooth surface permanently and require removal prior to final cementation. Problems may occur if the bacteria from oral cavity gain access to the pulpal tissue. The consequence could be pulp inflammation or even irreversible pulp infection, which requires endodontic treatment. There are some evidence in the literature that suggests that applying a sealant material on the freshly prepared teeth may reduce the invasion of the pulp by bacteria (Magne et al., 2007). Any effort needs to be made to reduce the risk of vitality loss in teeth requiring a full-coverage crow n. There are other alternatives to reduce the bacterial ingression like CAD/CAM technology. This method allows restoring a tooth with a crown in a single visit. Reis 2006 believes that using this system may decrease the possibility of bacterial infection of the pulp as there is no need for provisional coverage of the prepared tooth. 1.2 Research question Protecting the exposed dentine with a sealant after a crown preparation requires some additional steps and is more expense and time-consuming than the traditional procedure. The research question is if it is clinically necessary to seal the exposed dentine immediately after the preparation with a dentine sealing agent or not. 1.3 PICO Population: NHS and private patients between the age of 18 and 58 years of age in general dental practice requiring full-coverage crowns of a posterior tooth. Intervention: Sealing the exposed dentine of prepared teeth for full crown coverage with a dentine sealing agent instantly after the preparation before taking a final impression and temporisation. Control: Not sealing the exposed dentine of prepared teeth for full crown coverage with a dentine sealing agent instantly after the preparation. Outcome measure: Comparing the vitality loss of the prepared teeth for full crown restoration at one year, three years and six years. Aims and objectives Aims: The aim of the study is to evaluate the efficiency of instant sealing of posterior teeth prepared for full crown coverage prior to impression taking and temporisation in terms of vitality loss compared with teeth without any sealant application. Objectives: The primary objective is to assess whether an instant sealing of prepared posterior teeth for full crown restorations with a dentine sealant results in a reduction in vitality loss. To organise a clinical trial and to allocate two groups of participants (NHS and private) aged between 18 and 58 requiring a crown on a posterior tooth. One group will have their prepared teeth covered and one group not. To analyse the achieved data and to determine whether there is a difference between groups in terms of loss of vitality. Literature review 3.1 Introduction The assumption of this protocol is the proposition that the instantaneous sealing of exposed dentine after crown preparation, will help against the bacterial contamination of the pulpal tissue and decreases the probability of the treated tooth requiring root canal treatment in the future. 3.2 Search Strategy The strategy conducted for this literature review included an electronic search of the following databases: EMBASE (1995 Oct 2011), MEDLINE (1995 Oct 2011) and Cochrane Library. The reference list includes hand-searched articles and key journals related to researching. Key words: REFER TO KEY WORD EITHER HERE OR APPENIX 3.3 Background Where tooth destruction by dental disease is extensive, restoration may only be possible with full coverage restorations or crowns. There is a big number of NHS and private patients in UK requiring a full coverage of posterior teeth due to failed huge previous restorations, fractured cusps or following a root canal therapy. Tooth preparation for full coverage crown requires more tooth removal than other restorations. It should be carried out in a conservative way. The reason is to reduce the post-preparation sensitivity and pulp tissue protection in vital teeth and to maximise the remaining tooth structure. 3.4 Crown Preparation and pulp Health of pulp tissue can be affected by any restorative treatment. This is due to a continuous extension between dentinal and pulpal fluid (Pashley 1992). Preparation for a full-coverage restoration requires removal of most of the enamel resulting in an exposed dentine surface and may affect the pulp. In one study by Jackson et al. (1992) irreversible pulpitis occurred in 5.7% of cases in which crowns were placed. The bigger the exposed dentine surfaces during tooth preparation like for a crown, the greater the risk of bacterial infiltration from the oral environment (Pashley, 1990). Saunders and Saunders (1998) considered the vitality loss in adults who received full crowns in a dental hospital based on radiographic analysis and found that 19% of the patients in the study have lost vitality of the prepared teeth. A study by Cheung et al. (2005) aimed to investigate the influence of factors connected with pulpal damage in teeth restored with porcelain fused to metal (PFM) crowns or crowned as a fixed bridge abutment. The study reveals that the preparation for either of the restorations requires a considerable reduction of dentine and may cause trauma to pulp tissue but the survival rate of pulp in single-unit crowns is higher than in abutment teeth. Bergenholtz and Nyman (1984) and Karlsson (1986) demonstrated a permanent pulpal damage rate of 1% year for vital teeth following a crown restoration. 3.5 Crown Vs. other restorations Many previous studies have supported the use of indirect intracoronal restorations (porcelain or composite) in vital teeth as advantageous against full-coverage restorations due to their less invasively preparation and more conservative nature (Jackson, 2008, Magne et al., 1996, Dietschi et al., 1994). They have been also considered to be easier to do than a crown and are no more expensive than crowns or root canal treatments. A literature review by Kerschbaum and Voß 1981 showed that inlay restorations at 10 years have 9.5% lower rate of vitality loss compared to full crown restorations. When aesthetic aspect is not the first priority properly designed and provided inlays and onlays have the same longevity and durability as crowns (Jackson, 2008). Cusp replacement with resin composite can be considered as alternative to traditional cusp replacement by crowns due to advanced adhesive technology. Deliperi et al. (2006) highlight that if the bonding agent is not stressed, an acceptable success rate could be achieved by using this method. According to van Dijken et al. (2001) an indirect cusp replacement restoration with ceramic might be considered indicated. This has the benefit of saving valuable remaining tooth substance and eventually avoiding endodontic therapy. 3.6 Dentin Bonding There are recommendations in the literature for sealing the dentine with a Dentine Bonding Agent (DBA) following crown preparations in order to minimise the associated complications like hypersensitivity (Clinical Research Associates 1993). Dentine bonding agents have shown to be advantageous over the smear layer itself due to their mechanical retention (Nakabayashi et al. 1982) and moisture and acid resistance (Brunton et al. 2000). Over the last decades they have been considered as a modern way of sealing exposed dentine (Ferrari M. et al. 1999, Swift EJ et.al 2001). Some authors have compared the effectiveness of DBA with smear layer as a natural barrier. Pashley (1984) states that dentine permeability can be reduced up to 98% when smear layer is produced by slow or fast rotary headpieces but it would not last for more than a few days due to acidic PH from the oral cavity (Kerns DG. et al. 1991) .There are several advantages of DBAs over the smear layer like hybrid layer as described by Nakabayashi (1982) and resisting moisture and acid (Brunton et al. 2000). The result of various in-vitro studies on humans teeth (Pashley et al. 1992, White et al. 1992, Al-Fawaz et al. 1993) and animals teeth (Suzuki et al. 1994) supports the idea of sealing the dentine of prepared teeth for a crown restoration. A literature review by Lam, C.W. and Wilson, P.R. (1999) revealed that dentine sealing with bonding agents prior to crown cementation could be beneficial due to fluid flow reduction in dentine tubules. Magne (2005) believes that immediate application of dentine bonding agents or Immediate Dentine Sealing (IDS) prior to impression taking can reduce the postoperative sensitivity and bacterial contamination. 35% H3PO4 is normally used to remove the smear layer before DBA application. There are different ways of sealing dentinal tubules after the preparation. Edward and swift (2009) reviewed several in vitro research studies on the immediate dentine sealing technique in a critical appraisal and came to following conclusions. First, immediate sealing of fresh dentin improves the resin adhesion and the bond strength will be affected by late application. Second, the IDS provide a mechanical barrier which minimises the postoperative sensitivity, bacterial contamination and eventually the necessity of local anaesthesia. Most Practitioners prefer to use self-etch-adhesives. However, Magne et al. (2007) believe that a three-step, etch-and-rinse adhesive has shown to be more efficient. In order to avoid complications after the IDS, some clinical steps need to be taken. The appearance of an O2 -inhibitory layer is not desirable and should be prevented by light-curing the dentine adhesive twice under a glycerine coating. This step avoids the reaction between inhibitory layer and impression material. The reaction between temporary crown and sealed tooth should also be prevented by applying a separating material. The influence of dentine on antimicrobial effect of ingredients added to one-step dentine sealants was assessed by Gondim et al. (2008) and revealed a reduced affectivity after polymerisation with UV light. 3.7 Temporary Crowns Temporary crowns are provisional restorations that are fitted on the teeth between preparation and fit appointment. They have various functions, mainly dentine protection and tooth movement prevention. Their role is often overlooked by practitioners (Wassel et al. 2002). Pre-formed crowns (plastic, metal) and self or light cured resins are usually used in the dental practices as convenient for temporary restorations. Many temporary crowns have poor-fitting margins based on production procedure and material used. Some materials create a gap between the temporary and the prepared tooth due to polymerisation shrinkage (Robinson and Hovijitra, 1982)( Tjan et al. 1987). Cervical border of a temporary crown is the primary area to be reached by bacteria from the oral environment. Richardson et al. (1991) believe that dentine in the cervical margin shows higher permeability than dentine in other surfaces of the prepared tooth and that confirms the importance of good marginal adaptation of temporary crowns. A paper by Cagidiaco et al. (1996) considers the exposure of vital pulp tissue to bacterial contamination and irritants after dentine preparation in the base of a cavity, especially if temporary shows an unsatisfactory sealing. Exposed dentinal tubules after a crown preparation provide a way for transfer of substances between the pulpal tissue and periphery (Garberoglio and Brannstrom M. 1976). These tubules are expected to be sealed by cement. Different researchers (White et al. 1992, White et al. 1994, Lyons. et al, 1997, Baldissare. et al. 1998, Goldman et al. 1992) have found microleakage to be present after either permanent or temporary crown cementation. Literature review supports the evidence of benefit of immediate dentine bonding as a technique during temporisation of indirect provided restorations but reveals a lack of in vivo evidence. This fact supports the requirement for this clinical study. Study design methodology The study design and methodology will be presented in accordance with the CONSORT explanation for reporting on clinical trials (Moher et al., 2010). 4.1 Trial Design This will be a randomised controlled parallel two-armed trial-pragmatic group trial to take place over the duration of a six-year period. The study will provide a 1:1 allocation ratio. One molar tooth will be randomly chosen per participant. The evaluation of the outcome will take place at one year, three years and five years (Fig 1). 4.1.1 Changes to trial design The Data Monitoring Committee (DMC) will have access to the un-blinded data. The study protocol may be altered by DMC due to their recommendations. 4.2 Participants Participant selection will take place utilising new and existing patient population that attends the dental practice. Recruitment will be on a continuous basis until the required numbers of participants have been enrolled into the study (see section 5 for sample size calculation). This will ensure the pragmatic nature of the trial as no proactive recruitment of patients from leaflet drops and advertising will take place. A trained member of staff will administrate the consent process once a patient has been identified as having an eligible tooth suitable for the study. 4.2.1 Inclusion criteria for participants: Healthy adult patients between 18-58 years of age Provide a written informed consent, understand spoken and written English. Regular attenders (at least every six months) with a two-year record Require a full coverage of a Molar (Upper or Lower arch) With a crown Selected tooth must be periodontally healthy. Selected tooth must be vital and without any history of pulpitic symptoms within the last 12 months. Are able to attend follow-up appointments. In terms of periodontal status, the chosen teeth for study have to have a BPE less than three mm as per guidelines published by British Society of Periodontology (BSP). The teeth must be also radiographically free of any pre-operative pathological signs meaning intact pulp with no evidence of radiopaque foreign materials in the pulp chamber and/or root canals(s) and no periradicular radiolucent area. 4.2.2 Exclusion criteria for participants: Irregular attenders to dental practice History of pulpitic symptoms in the last 12 months Patients participating in any other medical trials Notable medical history change or pregnancy Existing periapical pathology (radiographically) Periodontal pockets more than three mm Pulpal exposure or extending caries into the pulp chamber Vulnerable adults or children 4.3 Study location and settings The trial will take place in twenty dental practices based in the United Kingdom. General Dental Practitioners with more than five years experience and qualification in a post-graduate restorative dentistry will be recruited. 4.4 Withdrawals Patients may be disqualified if they experience medical complications or refuse to attend routine check-ups. A patient may also be withdrawn from the study if the tooth suffers from a trauma, requires extraction or develops pockets deeper than 3mm due to insufficient oral hygiene. Information on all patients, including the reason for the withdrawal will be collected and added to trial data report. Patients may also choose to withdraw from the study themselves. 4.5 Randomisation Initial selection process will include all teeth that are suitable per patient. To maintain allocation concealment and to limit the occurrence of selection bias (Vickers A.J. 2006) a remote allocation officer in the central generates the allocation of teeth for either the intervention or control group. The participants initials, gender, date of birth and tooth notation will be submitted to a centre securely, where randomisation will occur within the patients to select the eligible tooth and to allocate the patient to the treatment or control group using a computer generated sequential number list. The trial will include only one allocated tooth per patient per control or treatment group. The indication of allocation will be sent to the general dental practitioner in an envelope with the patients identification code and the tooth number. The code for trial remains hidden until the clinical procedure to treat all eligible teeth is ready. At this time, it will be opened by the operator but not revealed to the participants. The randomisation will be balanced to a 1:1 ratio for each provider in each practice. Simple randomisation is suitable to generate a balanced group. Balance between the groups at each location will be verified by the trial allocation operator regularly. 4.6 Baseline assessment A baseline examination will be carried out by operators once the suitable patients have completed the consent procedure. The assessment will include: Patients Identification, age and gender Medical and social history Dental history Extra-oral examination: Musculoskeletal assessment, Soft tissue profile, TMJ Intra-oral examination: Oral Hygiene, periodontal assessment, soft tissue, occlusal analysis, vitality testing, Ridge mapping, Radiographic evaluation of tooth prior to preparation Reason for Crown placement 4.7 GDP training Each of the operators will attend a one-day training program on techniques. Clinical consensus will be ensured and standardised in a discussion with investigators in a separate session and will include a clinical protocol for the preparation of teeth for a full coverage with a crown, impression taking and temporisation. Additional clinical protocols will be prepared for immediate dentine sealing after preparation and for final cementation of the restoration. A clinical team member will be appointed as the independent observer to evaluate the compliance to the study criteria. All materials and Instruments used will be applied as per manufacturers instructions. The Crown system used in the study is Cercon ht (Dentsply) full Contour Zirconia. The high strength of zirconia-based ceramic restorations increases the indications for choice. They can be a near ideal choice for restoring crowns, fixed partial dentures, and implants in aesthetic areas. Because of their high strength, zirconia-based ceramic restorations can be cemented with traditional cements or bonded with adhesive resin cements. Like gold, Cercon ht has a simple, clinical protocol, requiring conservative tooth reductions of as little as 0.5 to 1.0 mm. A feature that is friendly to both patients dentition and dentists chair time. All clinical and laboratory techniques for teeth involved in the study are specified as per Dentsply protocol. 4.8 Intervention A universal self-priming dental adhesive system (Prime Bond NT Dual cure, Dentsply) and a dual cure resin cement (Calibra, Dentsply) will be used to bond the indirect restoration to the tooth. The literature supports the chosen material for this proposed study (Barnes et al., 2006). 4.8.1 Intervention protocol for Immediate Dentine Sealing (IDS) The teeth will be sealed immediately after preparation with Prime Bond NT Dual Cure (Dentsply). To avoid any bond contamination, retraction cord will be placed before dentine sealing. The protocol for dentine bonding is as manufacturers instructions: Clean freshly instrumented dentine with water spray and air dry. It is recommended not to etch dentine to minimize the possibility of post-operative sensitivity. Place 1-2 drops of Prime Bond NT adhesive into a clean plastic mixing well. Place an equal number of drops of Self Cure activator into the same mixing well. Mix Contents for 1-2 seconds with a clean, unused brush tip. Immediately apply mixed adhesive/activator to thoroughly wet all the tooth surfaces. These surfaces should remain wet for 20 seconds and may necessitate additional application of mixed adhesive/activator. Remove excess solvent by gently drying with clean, dry air at least for 5 seconds. Surface should have a uniform glossy appearance. Cure mixed adhesive/activator for 10 seconds using a curing light. Check curing light for minimum curing output of at least 550mw/cm2 and a spectral output, including 470nm (peak absorption of the CQ photoinitiator). Control Group Exactly the same procedure will be used for the control group prior to final bonding of the Crown. 4.8.2 Protocol for Impression taking Study Group (IDS) In practice, freshly cut dentin is present only at the time of tooth preparation (before impression). Freshly cut dentin is the ideal substrate for dentin bonding. Most studies on Dentine Bonding Agents (DBA) bond strength use freshly prepared dentin (Magne 2005). There is a possibility for the oxygen inhibition layer of filled resin of the dentine bonding agent to inhibit the setting of the impression material. The bonded teeth have to be cleaned with pumic and a rubber prophylactic cup and washed with water and air dried before the impression (Magne and Nielsen, 2009b). Impressions will be taken with an A-silicone double-mix technique (Aquasil ultra, Dentsply) as per manufactures Instruction. Control Group (no sealing) Impressions will be taken as per study group without sealing the dentine with DSA. 4.8.3 Protocol for temporisation Study Group (IDS) A prefabricated light curable temporary Crown (Protemp Crown temporisation material, 3M ESPE) will be fitted on the prepared tooth standard temporary cements. The occlusion will be controlled and if necessary adjusted. Control group A temporary crown will be fitted as above without any DBA application and after Impression taking as per clinical consensus guidelines. 4.8.4 Protocol for final cementation Study group (IDS) Just prior to the luting procedures (when placing the final restoration), it is recommended to roughen the existing adhesive resin using a coarse diamond bur at low speed or by microsandblasting (Magne 2005). The tooth and the restoration will be treated as per manufacturers instructions, and the crown can be cemented with dual cure resin (Calibra, Dentsply). Control group The same procedure as for study group will be carried out except the adhesive resin roughening step. 4.9 Outcomes The outcome measures will be assessed, and the CRF forms updated at baseline and at recall appointments of 1 year, 3 years and 5 years. Any relevant clinical incident between these times affecting the trial tooth needs to be recorded on CRF. Base-line findings and post-operative taken periapical (PA) of each trial tooth at one year and five years will be studied, assessed and recorded by two blind assessors. These precalibrated, independent observers will examine the radiographs and categorize the periapical status of the selected teeth according to a written set of criteria (Cheung et al. 2005) (Table 1). Categories 1, 2 or 3 are deemed to be associated with a non-vital pulp. If there are any disagreement, a third assessor will be involved as an arbitrator before a final score is reached. The protocol for Periapicals will adhere to the guidelines produced by the faculty of General Dental Practitioners (Pendlebury et al., 2004). An Independent assessor will audit each practice participating in the study to ensure compliance with radiology regulations (IRMER). 4.10 Blinding Every effort will be made to prevent disclosure of the exact nature of the study aim and to which arm of the study the participants have been allocated. This will be specified to minimise assessment reactivity, which has been hypothesised by McCambridge and Strang (2005). The date collection statistician who assesses and calculates the outcome results will also be blinded to the individual patient allocation to limit detection bias. The operators will not be blinded but the allocation of whether the tooth is to be control or intervention will be concealed until intervention procedure is to be carried out. 4.11 Follow up An important selection criterion to minimise drop-out is the eligibility of the patients to be regular attenders at the relevant dental practices. Patients lost to follow up will be recorded.. Category Status Description 0 Intact pulp No evidence of radiopaque foreign material in pulp chamber and/or root canal(s), and no periradicular radiolucent area 1 Widening of the PDL space Widening of the apical part of the periodontal ligament space, not exceeding two times the width of the lateral periodontal ligament space 2 Periapical radiolucency Radiolucency in connection with the apical part of the root, the diameter exceeding two times the width of the lateral periodontal ligament space 3 Endodontically treated tooth Tooth with radiopaque material in pulp chamber (if discernible) and/or root canal(s) Table 1- Radiographic categorization of pulpal status (Cheung et al. 2005) 4.12 Safety This study will not be utilising any investigational medicinal products; it will therefore be classed as a non- Clinical Trial of an Investigative Medicinal Product trial (non-CMITP). All untoward incidents will be adverse events rather than adverse reaction. The study is also compatible with Data Protection and Mental Capacity Act. The treatment options being studied are non-life threatening on non-vulnerable adults with no risk of harm and no unknown or uncertain risks. A Data Monitoring Committee (DMC) will be appointed who makes recommendations, as required, to the chair of the Trial Steering Committee. This committee is responsible for ensuring that the intervention and control techniques will be carried out under the guidance provided by the EU directive for Good Clinical Practice. 4.12.1 Assessment of Safety There are no expected unexpected adverse events since the intervention is used routinely in general dental practice. The using of etching gel has expected adverse events should it come into contact with the soft tissues (Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) sheet). All other dental materials involved (Prime Bond NT Dual Cure, Calibra dual cure resin cement (Dentsply), Protemp Crown temporisation material, 3M ESPE) are fully licensed within the medical devices regulations for use in dentistry in UK. All operators are experienced dental practitioners having handled these materials routinely and will be trained in dealing with expected adverse reactions should the product inadvertently come into contact with pati